ABSTRACT

Space Lattice Theory is a theoretical study of the fundamental structure of the universe. The study asked what the structure of space might be like if, instead of being mostly an empty void, space is a densely packed, crystal-like Lattice. In this Lattice, the existence and interactions of what we call matter are due to movable holes or dislocations in the Lattice similar to those observed in metals and semi-conductors.

The study found that a dislocation model could produce a comprehensive set of simple, visualizable explanations for most of the concepts of physics, including many that are currently highly speculative. The study suggests conventional physics explanations for matter, time, cause and effect, energy, and how energy converts to matter. It suggests structures for gravity, electric and magnetic fields, how they can be physical realities, and how they can function. It suggests classical foundations for relativistic observations.
Space Lattice Theory supports a “big bang”-like beginning for a 3-D “visible” universe, suggesting how it could easily emerge from what appears to be the nothingness of space, but without having to change any classical laws of physics. Solutions to puzzles like the particle-wave nature of photons are suggested. Problems with current standard model theories for subatomic particles, cosmology and Special Relativity are discussed and partial solutions suggested. Physical models supporting the suggestions are proposed.

Most significant, Space Lattice Theory suggests a comprehensive model for the Grand Unification of all forces and matter in the universe.

The Inspiration

In 2004, the 100th anniversary of Einstein’s Special Relativity paper, I was reading an article that reviewed Einstein’s idea that gravity could be visualized as a fabric in space. Einstein suggested that a mass in space could be visualized as a “knot” in the fabric. This has always been unsettling for me because knots in a fabric don’t move. An alternate concept appeared in my mind based on my experience with metals and electronic semiconductors.

Electric current is well established as the “flow” of electrons. But on the atomic scale, in order for electrons to move through a conductor, a number of intermediate steps must occur.
First, the structure of the conductor must have atoms with electrons that can be easily ejected from the atoms leaving an atom with a missing electron (valences). Second, an electric field must be established to apply a force to the electrons. Once the field exists, an electron in one of the atoms, which is adjacent to an atom that is missing an electron, jumps from its current location to fill the valence. This, however, just creates a new valence in the atom it came from. Another adjacent atom, with an available electron, supplies that electron to fill that valence. This process continues essentially filling valence “holes” but each time just opening up another one. From a distance, it would look like a bucket brigade. The process continues until all the electrons along a continuous path through the conductor move just one atomic spacing.

In summary, a large quantity of electrons have each moved a single atomic step. Let’s say this is to the left along a conductor. But, from the standpoint of the “conductor” as a whole, it appears that a single electron jumped in at the right end (+) of the conductor and another electron jumped out of the left end (-). Alternatively, however, the result can also be “interpreted” as a single positive charge jumping in at the left (-) and moving the entire length of the conductor to emerge at the right (+). In electronics, this “theoretical” positive charge is called a “hole”.

Metals also experience a similar phenomenon. It is well known that metals are much weaker under tension or shear than would be predicted from atomic bond strength for a perfect crystal. The low strength property of non-single crystal metals was explained in detail by Volterra in 1907. The term dislocations was established by Taylor in 1934. In a typical polycrystalline metal, the interface of adjacent crystals do not exactly match. Areas of mismatch are called dislocations. When stress is applied to the bulk material, the atoms near crystal contact points experience plastic realignment. As in the electronic example, the dislocations don’t move simultaneously as in a chain, but like a bucket brigade across the whole length of the crystal face. The moving dislocations act like a lubricant for part of the crystal making metals much weaker than a single crystal.

What occurred to me to start my study was that Einstein’s “knots” in a fabric of gravity, might in fact be “holes” or “dislocations”. They would create the property we call mass and move in a 3-D universal lattice.

Without knowing where this would lead, I started to explore how such dislocations would have to work to explain the basic elements of physics. Some concepts, like atomic particles moving in a Lattice initially seemed quite simple. But addressing specifics like photons introduced challenging complications. The dynamics and geometric constraints, however, turned out to be pretty narrowly bounded. This created the enticement to go one more step. The solutions required a lot of geometric modeling. The reason I continued the effort was that, solving each difficult relationship, new and simple concepts emerged for some tough age-old questions in physics – like photons. This carrot-on-a-stick kept me going for over two years. The result was breathtaking.

In summary, the reason I now continue to share these discoveries is that they provide SO MANY potentially new concepts that could answer the MAJOR questions of physics while being consistent with many well accepted experimental and theoretical observations.

Space Lattice Theory (SLT)

The Aa

• The basic constituent of the universe is a very small object which I call an Aa. I have no evidence that might show the specific shape of an Aa. But after attempting to construct a model lattice from many different forms, taking into account both static and dynamic properties, one simple but precisely proportioned form appears to work. It may be visualized as a simple dumbbell with two spherical ends.

• The Aa is unique. It only occurs in one form. Everything we observe in the universe is explained by it.

• Space is completely and densely filled with Aas. They act as if they are under great compression, like a fluid pressure.

• The Aas contact each other at their ends. Due to the dumbbell shape, they self organize to create a “lattice” shape that fills a conventional 3-dimensional space. There is no physical “node” or mass at the connection of the Aas.

• The space lattice has local structure like that of a single crystal but is amorphous on the scale we associate with visible mass ( grains of sand, planets, stars, galaxies ).

• An Aa doesn’t exhibit observable macro scale mass properties because of its small size. However, it fully exhibits the Newtonian mass properties of elasticity and inertia. The Aas interact completely without friction.

Matter and Mass

Mass, or more specifically, any fundamental particle we observe, is created in space by an organized collection of dislocations or “holes” in the space lattice. Specifically, the property we call mass is caused by a local dislocation in the framework of space.

Antimatter

In SLT, antimatter is not related to standard model concept of opposite polarity electric charge (which should better be referred to as anti charge). While an Aa missing from the lattice causes a pulling-in of the lattice to fill the missing space, a case may also occur where an additional Aa gets forced into the lattice. This would push the lattice outward around the extra Aa. This would produce the property we call anti-gravity (not anti charge).

Interesting dynamics result. Conventional mass (+) and mass (+) attract as in Fg = – G m1 * m2 / r2. Mass (+) and antimass (-) repel. However, we now find that antimass (-) and antimass (-) also attract! This suggests that space might contain substantially sized antimatter objects. Their interaction with mass would be to repel it! So, there might exist entire antimass galaxies. The problem is, they would be very hard to see because if light is thought to exhibit mass (+) properties, it would be deflected from the antimatter. Instead of antimatter “black holes”, the same geometric object made of antimatter would be an antimatter MIRROR!

If we could somehow force matter and antimatter to collide, the excess Aas in the antimatter might fill in the holes of the matter. The result would be the complete annihilation of both particles, with the production of substantial energy. But ONLY energy. This would be entirely distinct from the standard model anti-charge annihilations observed.

Matter Creation and Destruction

• THE CREATION OF MATTER OUT OF NOTHING ( the BIG BANG ) is easily handled by SLT. A buildup of stress in the space lattice, due to colliding lattice waves, can open a huge void in the lattice – a universal space quake. That would create an equivalent to the big bang. Without the prevailing lattice pressure, Aas would fall off the inner walls into the void. Matter would be created randomly as the void collapsed and Aas were trapped in distorted arrangements leaving many voids. Curiously, there would not have to be the creation of an equal amount of antimatter (which is what we observe).

• SLT answers a serious big bang question: how can matter expand out of a big bang singularity, which is essentially a major black hole? SLT suggests that the creation of matter occurred during the collapse of a large void. It was never a singularity. As the void closed up, the inertia of the lattice imploding around the void, would cause an overpressure where the void occurred. This high pressure volume in the lattice, which actually defines the shape of gravity, would appear as a huge antigravity field. This would propel the newly formed mass outward.

• THE DESTRUCTION OF MATTER INTO NOTHING is also explained by this theory. This is the role and fate of BLACK HOLES. As particles, which are collections of “holes”, fall into a Black Hole, they are essentially converted into pure lattice.

A particle is a structure that has many holes. As particles fall into the black hole, the extreme gravity disassociates atoms to fundamental particles and then pushes the particles together. As the holes that form the particles are pushed together, they simple merge. The Aas from one particle also combine to fill the voids in other particles. The result is the production of pure lattice. The reduction of the bending in the lattice due to the elimination of holes reduces the effective gravity of the Black Hole. Ironically, while initially formed as an inescapable concentration of mass, at some limit, additional mass will just result in the creation of more pure lattice. In this SLT model, a Black Hole could become just a steady state mass eater, balancing the effects of universal space quakes.

• PARTICLES are formed by the stable associations of groups of dislocations. An infinite number of particle types can be created by varying the arrangements of dislocations. This would explain why we keep getting more particle types with stronger particle accelerators. Only specific arrangements, however, are stable due to the joining angle restrictions of the Aa. The physics of how the Aas can be captured in non-aligning patterns governs particle stability.

• Particles move by the propagation of stable collections of dislocations in the lattice.
• Particles can change form by rearranging their dislocations.
• ATOMS are collections of particles.

Force at a Distance – Gravity

FORCE AT A DISTANCE, one of the greatest puzzles in all physics, is explained in a simple way by SLT.

A vacuum, on the macro scale, does not actually produce a suction force. The force we observe is caused by a PRESSURE which is not equally opposed. SLT suggests that the same concept in the universe explains ALL forces at a distance. The lattice is under a universal pressure. As mass is created by dislocations, the shape of the lattice in the area around the mass changes. As masses come together, large distortions of the lattice shape occur. If two collections of mass are brought together, as they approach, the FIELD STRUCTURES of their lattice distortions interact. The distortion around a dislocation has LESS strain than undisturbed lattice. The interaction of the fields from two masses causes the lattice field between the structures to become the sum of the two fields, thereby exhibiting less strain than the volume of the lattice beyond the masses. This imbalance is observed as a force pushing the masses together.

That is, masses are pushed together by the combined pressures of a mass-warped lattice; they are not pulled together by some attractive means. Force occurs at a distance because the lattice structure is continuous; the effect of lattice bending due to the presence of objects extends far beyond the vicinity of the objects.

GRAVITY, is the cumulative warping of the universal lattice due to the presence of masses, which are collections of dislocations. Each dislocation (mass ) warps the structure of the universal lattice. This supports Einstein’s view of gravitation as a warped field in space. Unlike General Relativity, SLT also suggests that the value of gravity is limited. This occurs at great range due to the ability of events to disrupt lattice continuity, and at very small scales because the misalignment of the Aas is limited. SLT also suggests that gravity can be artificially manipulated by introducing or eliminating voids.

Photons and Nuclear Energy Transformation

• PHOTONS are independent single dislocations in the lattice. They are typically created by a change in the internal structure of a particle which ejects a single dislocation from the structure. The dislocation is ejected with a surrounding energy package that may possibly be in the form of a rolling toroid (smoke ring). The discriminating property of a photon is its ability to transfer mass.

This model has a number of consequences. Being a dislocation, it has inherent mass. Having mass, it reacts as mass in a gravity field. An ejected photon removes mass from the ejecting particle. The photon travels without expanding and without 1/r2 loss because it is integral with the dislocation. Typically, it travels through the lattice until it interacts with another particle in a way that it can add a single element dislocation to the other particle, at which time the photon disappears. Mass is added to the encountered particle.

The SLT model, however, suggests many new concepts. The photon is not a wave. It does not have a wavelength. Wave like behavior only occurs when it interacts with matter or other photons, and is actually an energy transfer behavior related to its energy packet. While the photon does not lose energy due to 1/r2 loss, it does lose energy due to the interaction of the energy packet and the lattice. This, SLT suggests, is the primary cause of the linear component of the Hubble Constant. The loss of energy to the lattice is a primary contributor to the Cosmic Microwave Background. But, most unexpectedly, SLT suggests that the photon can slow to zero speed. At that speed, it’s energy packets has been exhausted. It no longer has sufficient energy to interact with atoms or fundamental particles. And since it is so small, it can’t be detected using conventional techniques. It does, however, still have mass. This makes it a prime candidate for dark matter and scavenging by black holes.

• Photons explain E=mc2 for nuclear processes. Energy is a measure of a photon’s packet to affect particles. Photon mass measures a dislocation’s gravitational effect. Mass converts to energy by the ejection of a dislocation as a photon. Photon energy converts to mass when a particle captures a photons energy packet and dislocation mass.

Electric Charge

• Electric charge is an additive component of many particles. It is associated with the capability to cause a twisting distortion of the lattice. The twist can appear in two forms: + and – . The twist does not introduce a density change in the lattice. This property allows electric charge and gravity to overlap in the lattice without affecting each other to the first order.

Electro-Magnetics (E-M)

• SLT provides very descriptive models for how both electric charge and magnetism work. All magnetic effects are due to moving charges.

• The phenomenon classical electrodynamics refer to as ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES, are actually multiple distinct phenomenon. Unlike photons, E-M waves are not able to transfer mass. Ultra-violet light may mark the crossover from radio waves to photons. The property referred to as light, is primarily E-M waves.

• E-M waves are simple twisting vibrations of the lattice caused by the motion of electric charges. E-M waves spread geometrically, are subject to 1/r2 loss, and can dissipate to zero amplitude.

• Refractive Index: The lattice fills the intervening volume between the fundamental particles in the atom and between atoms. The structure of the lattice is “regularly amorphous”. This means it has a structure that is intimately dependent on the atoms surrounding it. The increased disorder of the lattice requires photons to take circuitous paths, decreasing propagation speeds. This also suggests how photons can resume their speed as they emerge from matter. They just enter less disturbed lattice.

• E-M Induction: Lattice elements must move in response to electric charge motion. All lattice motions are dynamically (time) regulated by the Lattice Relaxation Response (LRR). The LRR measures the rate that a pattern of compressed Aas will return to their normal state. This is due to the ratio of elasticity to inertia of the Aa in compression. The inherent impedance of space to radio wave generation is a measure of the LRR for forced twisting. The speed of E-M waves (including light) is a measure of the LRR for compression recovery. The magnetic induction and capacitive constants are based on the same mechanism.

• E-M waves follow gravitational bending in the lattice. This is due to refractive effects, however, not gravitational effects.

The Aether

• Michaelson – Morley / Dayton Miller: The space lattice is the aether. The shape of the space lattice produces gravity. But the shape of the lattice is dynamically dependent on the collection of mass in it. As the earth moves through the lattice, the lattice inside and around the earth interacts with the earth. The earth already has enough mass to drag the lattice. The drift near the planet (Michelson – Morley measured about 76,600 km/hr. ) which can increase substantially with distance above sea level (Dayton Miller).

• SLT accepts and explains the Lorentz effects on some clocks and dimensional lengths.
• A re-evaluation of the Hafele – Keating data shows agreement with SLT to less than 3% error.

Grand Unification – the Aether

• SLT is a dynamic elastic solid aether model. The lattice is the aether for both gravitation and electro-magnetism.

• It is the multiple, mutually exclusive use of the lattice by gravity and electro-magnetism, that provides the opportunity for Grand Unification.

The complete Space Lattice Theory paper is available from:
Academia https://www.academia.edu/12080870/Space_Lattice_Theory

General Science Journal: http://gsjournal.net/Science-Journals/Research%20Papers-Unification%20Theories/Download/6034

From the A3 Society as:

An Abstract , A short 6 page overview (this paper) , An introduction to SLT –  75 pages including 18 figures, glossary and references, and a  full paper  244 pages 30 figures

An abridged version is also available for general audiences.

For more discussion on this topic, contact:
Bruce Nappi
Director
A3 Research Institute
bnappi {at} A3RI ((dot)) org